How old are trees in the Amazon?

October 19, 2012, 11:06 am

We know this tree is tall- but how old?

How old are trees in the Amazon?
How can you tell the age with no tree rings?

Most people are familiar with the technique of looking at tree rings to measure the age of a tree. For every ring, you can see another year that the growth was stunted in the winter and flourished in the summer. However, that presents a problem for aging trees in the tropics where the seasons aren’t typically as well defined.

So, how is it done?

There are a few ways it can be done, and by using a combination of techniques a solid estimate of the age is possible. Here are few of the most modern techniques:

Carbon Dating

When plants change carbon dioxide into organic matter (i.e. when they grow) during photosynthsis, they have an amount of a molecule called carbon-14 that matches the atmosphere. After entering the plant, the carbon-14 declines predictably over time via radioactive decay into nitrogen-14. So, by measuring carbon-14 in the middle of a tree (the oldest, first year growth) you can then get a pretty good rough estimate of the age of the tree. The downside? It takes a long time to analyze the tree in the lab, and not all trees sequester carbon at the same rate.

Invisible Tree Rings

Recent research showed that some tropical trees that don’t appear to have tree rings actually do have them- they’re just not visible to the naked eye. However, by taking x-rays of them you can see the calcium rings, associated with yearly growth, and therefor determine the age. The downside? Researchers still aren’t sure how many trees share these calcium x-ray visible rings.

Normal Tree Rings

Tree rings visible on this tree in the Amazon.

It ends up that a lot more tropical trees have tree rings than originally thought. Here in Tambopata, for instance, the dry season is marked enough that tree rings would be visible in a lot of species.

How old are the trees? A good rough estimate is that it takes trees between 60-100 years to become mature, and can live for up to 600 years!

References from here, here, here, and here.

See more posts by biologist Phil Torres at TheRevScience

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The Caracaras of Tambopata

November 15, 2012, 5:06 pm

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Caracaras

Adult Caracara

Caracaras are rather large birds of prey that occur in grasslands, dry forest, and rainforests from southern Texas south through Central and South America to Tierra del Fuego. The origin of their name comes from the Tupi language of Brazil and may be related to the sound made by the Yellow-headed Caracara. Two to three species are found in most parts of the Amazon rainforest and in Tambopata, Peru, four species of caracaras occur. The Red-throated Caracara frequents the rainforest canopy, and the Black, Yellow-headed, and the Southern Crested Caracara occur along rivers and in open habitats. Most guests of Posada Amazonas, Refugio Amazonas, and the Tambopata Research Center see one or more species of these noisy, conspicuous raptors during their stay.

In the Amazon rainforest, the two most common caracara species are the Black and the Red-throated. The Black is often seen along rivers and in clearings and other open habitats while the Red-throated is found in primary rainforest. The species that occur in Tambopata, Peru all have fairly long wings and tails, and bare skin on the face. The Yellow-headed and Southern Crested Caracaras have large pale patches on their wings and the base of the tail.

Juvenile Caracara

Caracaras are pretty common in most of their range. Although Yellow-headed and Southern Crested Caracaras are easily seen in other parts of their range, these open country birds are very uncommon in Tambopata and occasionally seen along the Tambopata River or in farmlands. The Black and Red-throated Caracaras are the species that are typically seen around rainforest eco-lodges such as Refugio Amazonas and are commonly found on rainforest hikes or during boat rides on the river.

Some interesting facts about caracaras:

Odd falcons: Caracaras actually belong to the same family as the falcons. Unlike the Peregrine Falcon and kestrels, caracaras have broader, less pointed wings and don’t catch their prey after hovering or a swift dive from the air. Most species scavenge for carrion and small animals along rivers, beaches, and other open habitats.

Adult Caracara

A wasp specialist: The Red-throated Caracara is one of the strangest raptors to occur in the rainforests of Tambopata. Unlike other raptors in the Amazon, it occurs in family groups of four or five birds (and sometimes more) and makes harsh calls that can sound a bit like a macaw. It also appears to be a specialist that feeds on wasp larvae, flying termites, and other insects. Although it is still common in the Amazon jungle, it may need large areas of rainforest to survive as it has disappeared from all but the largest tracts of rainforest in Central America.

How to see caracaras during a jungle tour in the Peruvian Amazon:

Watch for these conspicuous raptors when traveling by boat: Most boat rides on the river turn up sightings of one or more Black Caracara. They are usually seen in flight and can be separated from vultures by their orange face, white at the base of the tail, and flying with floppy wing beats. Red-throated Caracaras are sometimes also seen as they fly across the river but are more commonly encountered on jungle hikes or visits to oxbow lakes. Canopy towers are also excellent places to see caracaras as they fly over the green roof of the jungle and perch in tall snags.

Go birding with a guide: Although these large, noisy raptors are pretty easy to see on your own, a guide can help identify them or even bring them closer with an imitation of their calls.

Visit the Peruvian jungle with Rainforest Expeditions to see caracaras and other large raptors along with many other interesting Amazonian birds.

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16 Gigapixel Machu Picchu Photo Sponsored By Rainforest Expeditions

November 20, 2012, 8:30 am

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Photography tour guide for Peru’s Rainforest Expeditions Captures the Highest Resolution Photo Ever Taken of Machu Picchu

LIMA, Peru, Nov. 14, 2012 – Peru’s visionary leader in sustainable tourism, Rainforest Expeditions http://www.perunature.com/, recently sent its photo tour director Jeff Cremer away for some rest and recreation. Cremer returned with what he believes may well be the highest resolution (15.9 gigapixels) photo of Machu Picchu ever taken.

The unprecedented image has been made available to the public on a special web page http://www.gigapixelperu.com. Users can explore the remarkable detail of the photo by zooming in and out of the image. Individual snapshots may also be taken from within the image.

A behind the scenes video on the taking of the photo was created by Destin Sandlin of the YouTube channel Smarter Every Day. See: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfLH5_RWZH4&feature=plcp

Cremer’s work was partially assisted with professional equipment regularly used in photography tours based from Rainforest Expeditions’ three eco-lodges deep in the Peruvian Amazon. Cremer used a Canon 7D with a 100-400mm f/5.6 lens and a Gigapan Epic Pro mount and Gitzo Basalt Explorer tripod.

The photo consists of 1920 separate images recorded by a photo-robot in 1 hour and 42 minutes. To stitch the image together a 2.67Ghz Hexacore MacPro with 32GB Ram and an OCZ 960GB RevoDrive was used. Render time was 1.5 hours. The final resolution of the image is 297,500 x 87,500 pixels or 15.9 gigapixels.

Oversize prints can be ordered at:http://www.gigapixelperu.com/Prints.html.

“Machu Picchu is one of the Seven Man-Made Wonders of the World and the most familiar icon of the ancient Inca,” explains Cremer when asked about his destination choice for the photo. “In 2008, the World Monuments Fund placed it on its Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world due to environmental degradation mostly from tourism. Beautiful, historical and threatened, I believed that this extraordinary site deserved a remarkable photo to hopefully raise awareness and help in its preservation.”

When not applying his craft elsewhere with the same state-of-art, professional-quality cameras, lenses, tripods and flash available for guests to use on Rainforest Expedition Nature Photograph Tours, Cremer arranges and leads 7-day/6-night photo tours from eco-lodges perched along the wild Tambopata River in the Peruvian Amazon. Shorter 5-day programs are also available. All of these tours have been specifically designed to let clients experience what it is like to be a National Geographic wildlife photographer. See: http://www.perunature.com/amazon-rainforest-photography-tours-photo-workshops.html.

While in the field participants may try out the latest high tech gear including Canon 600mm f/4 lenses, carbon fiber tripods, specialized macro lenses that can photograph in startling clarity the eyes of an ant, and robotic panorama cameras that can make photos of over 100 gigapixels. In addition to camera usage, workshops include topics on Photoshop, photography and ethics, the psychology of beauty and technical presentations on how digital cameras work. For a sampling of equipment for use see: http://www.perunature.com/wildlife-photography-equipment.html

Rainforest Expeditions’ lodges are accessed from Puerto Maldonado airport arriving from Lima or Cusco on daily commercial flights lasting 45 or 90 minutes respectively. A bus transports guests to the Infierno River Port to board motorized wooden canoes for a 45-minute trip to the first lodge, Posada Amazonas. Refugio Amazonas, the second lodge, is a 3.5-hour boat trip after departing the bus. The third and most remote is Tambopata Research Center, requiring a 4-hour additional upriver boat ride from Refugio Amazonas. Each lodge is only a few minutes on foot from the river bank. See:http://www.perunature.com/tambopata-jungle-lodges-puerto-maldonado.html

About Rainforest Expeditions

Rainforest Expeditions (http://www.perunature.com/) is a recipient of The Rainforest Alliance 2012 Sustainable Standard-Setter award. This Peruvian ecotourism company shares with visitors in a sustainable manner the miracles of the Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone, 1.5 million hectares of pristine, still wild, tropical rainforest encompassing an area of land the size of Connecticut and stretching from the Andean highlands to the Amazon lowlands. It includes the Tambopata National Reserve, a 275,000-hectare conservation unit created by the Peruvian government in 1990 to protect the watersheds of the Tambopata and Candamo rivers. Conservation and ecotourism is helping to protect some of the last untouched lowland and premontane tropical humid forests in the Amazon.

Since 1989, guests of first one and now three Rainforest Expedition eco-lodges have added value to the region’s standing tropical rainforest. A sensitively conceived and managed (in some cases by native communities) touristic infrastructure creates a competitive alternative to such unsustainable economic uses as clear cutting the forest for timber or for cattle grazing. The partnerships Rainforest Expeditions has forged with local people eager to share Amazonian traditions with guests provide connection, expertise, adventure and access to wildlife in the jungles of Tambopata. Rainforest Expeditions has been verified and certified “a sustainable tourism business” by the Rainforest Alliance http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/.

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Posada Amazonas Pack For A Purpose

November 28, 2012, 8:34 am

≫ Next: New Species of 'Decoy' Spider Likely Discovered At Tambopata Research Center

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Pack with a purpose for Posada Amazonas

LIMA, Peru, Nov. 19, 2012 – Posada Amazonas Lodge, one of three accommodations under the directive of Peru’s visionary leader in sustainable tourism, Rainforest Expeditions http://www.perunature.com/, has partnered with Pack for a Purpose that encourages travelers to carry with them five pounds of school or medical supplies that can make a difference to communities they’re visiting www.packforapurpose.org.

Rainforest Expeditions’ team has identified needs of its local community of the indigenous Ese’eja of Infierno who own this lodge that is located within a communal reserve. Some 170 native and ribereño families (second or third generation settlers) work and profit from this 30-room eco-lodge, wellness and holistic center.

“Because we partner on a daily basis with this 500-person community, we know intimately the academic challenges and shortcomings faced by its 65 children between the ages of 6 and 14,” said Rainforest Expeditions’ spokesperson Jeff Cremer. He said that community schools welcome computer equipment, pens, pencils, pencil sharpeners, rulers, English teaching books, English/Spanish dictionaries, software, ecology-focused teaching aids and playground equipment along with puzzles, rubber balls, crayons, modeling clay and colored pencils. For a full list of needed items see: http://www.packforapurpose.org/docs/countries/peru/posada-amazonas.shtml

Cremer encouraged travelers to the region to first visit the website or email Rainforest Expeditions for specific needs that also include clothing and shoes plus medical supplies for the Native Community of Infierno Clinic. Most items are easily found in hometown pharmacies and discount stores. Five pounds equates to 400 pencils, or five deflated soccer balls with an inflation device or a stethoscope, a blood pressure cuff and 500 band-aids.

Posada Amazonas (http://www.perunature.com/posada-amazonas.html) is a remote, comfortable lodge in the Madre de Dios region of southeastern Peru, teeming with monkeys and more than 850 species of birds. In biodiversity-rich surroundings, The Rainforest Alliance Verified™ lodge hires from within the community, and sources locally produced goods whenever possible. Since joining Rainforest Alliance’s verification program, the lodge has implemented a biodegradable sanitation system, reduced air and water pollution by purchasing eco-friendly boats, improved waste management and conducted extensive training in sustainable management.

A common area at the lodge includes a hammock lounge, dining area, a meeting room and a bar. A 30-meter Canopy Tower offers views of the vast expanses of standing forest and nearby Tambopata River. Resident are toucans, parrots and macaws; hoatzin, caiman and horned screamers. From a catamaran on Lake Tres guests are treated to sightings of a family of Giant River Otters. Activities include walking an ethno botanical trail, visiting a working vegetable farm, community visits, kayaking and mountain biking.

Rainforest Expeditions

(http://www.perunature.com/) is a Peruvian ecotourism company that shares with visitors in a sustainable manner the miracles of the Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone, 1.5 million hectares of pristine, still wild, tropical rainforest encompassing an area of land the size of Connecticut and stretching from the Andean highlands to the Amazon lowlands. It includes the Tambopata National Reserve, a 275,000-hectare conservation unit created by the Peruvian government in 1990 to protect the watersheds of the Tambopata and Candamo rivers. Conservation and ecotourism is helping to protect some of the last untouched lowland and premontane tropical humid forests in the Amazon.

Rainforest Expeditions’ string of three jungle lodges is accessed from Puerto Maldonado airport with flights arriving daily from Lima or Cusco. Motorized wooden canoes then take guests on a 45-minute trip to the first lodge, Posada Amazonas. Refugio Amazonas, the second lodge, is a 3.5-hour boat trip from Puerto Maldonado. The third and most remote is Tambopata Research Center, requiring a 4-hour additional upriver boat ride from Refugio Amazonas. Each lodge is only a few minutes on foot from the river bank. See: http://www.perunature.com/tambopata-jungle-lodges-puerto-maldonado.html.

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New Species of 'Decoy' Spider Likely Discovered At Tambopata Research Center

December 10, 2012, 3:24 pm

≫ Next: Why are some animals so well camouflaged?

≪ Previous: Posada Amazonas Pack For A Purpose

The decoy spider constructed out of leaves.
Image by Phil Torres

From afar, it appears to be a medium sized spider about an inch across, possibly dead and dried out, hanging in the center of a spider web along the side of the trail. Nothing too out of the ordinary for the Amazon. As you approach, the spider starts to wobble quickly forward and back, letting you know this spider is, in fact, alive.

Step in even closer and things start to get weird- that spider form you were looking at is actually made up of tiny bits of leaf, debris, and dead insects. The confusion sets in. How can something be constructed to look like a spider, how is it moving, and what kind of creature made this!?

It turns out the master designer behind this somewhat creepy form is in fact a tiny spider, only about 5mm in body length, that is hiding behind or above that false, bigger spider made up of debris. After discussing with several spider experts, we've determined it is quite probable that this spider is a never-before-seen species in the genus Cyclosa. This genus is known for having spiders that put debris in their webs to either attract prey or, as in this case, confuse anything trying to eat them.

The actual spider (left) and examples of the constructed, false spiders (right).
Images by Jeff Cremer and Phil Torres.

You could call it a spider decoy, in a sense. The spiders arrange debris along specialized silk strands called stabilimenta in a symmetrical form that makes it look almost exactly like a larger spider hanging in the web. Studies have found that some Cyclosa species have a higher survival rate against potential predators like paper wasps because the wasps end up attacking the debris in the web rather than the spider itself. As seen here, Cyclosa can make debris look a bit like a spider, but not nearly as detailed as the spiders found at the Tambopata Research Center which have a complex form that actually looks like a bigger version of themselves, complete with legs and all.

After asking other experts, I cannot seem find another example of an animal creating a bigger, decoy version of itself to escape predation, making this species not only interesting to taxonomists naming new species but to those who study animal behavior, as well.

After 3 days of searching we found about 25 of the spiders found in one floodplain area surrounding the Tambopata Research Center. Extensive searches in other areas did not turn up any of the spiders, showing that they have a rather restricted range, at least locally.

The Tambopata River, as seen near the Tambopata Research Center.

What’s the next step after discovering a new species? It takes a lot of time and effort to go from finding it in the field to actually describing it. Specimens will have to be collected to compare to known species, dissections done on identifying features like the genitalia, and descriptions will have to be written to show why this species is different from others, a type specimen will have to be selected, and the eventual publication of all of that information in a journal. Only then can it be considered a named new species to science.

For now, we are looking for spider-specialists to collaborate with to describe this species, and enjoying pointing it out to tourists who come to Tambopata to check out all of our strange, interesting wildlife.

Follow Phil Torres on twitter.

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Why are some animals so well camouflaged?

January 3, 2013, 5:54 pm

≫ Next: The Elusive American Pygmy Kingfisher

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Simply put, the detailed camouflage you can come across in the rainforest is astonishing. Whether it be a frog, an insect, or a lizard, camouflage is an essential part of survival in an ecosystem full of very intelligent predators.

Here are some of the most impressive examples of camouflage we've come across in Tambopata.

Sphaenorhyncus lacteus, the greater hatchet-faced treefrog.
Photo by Phil Torres

A katydid.
Photo by Jeff Cremer.

A Plica plica tree runner camouflages against the bark of a large Ficus tree.
Photo by Phil Torres

Another related katydid- some camouflage against dead leaves, others against live, green leaves.
Photo by Jeff Cremer

Predators like monkeys and birds have remarkable visual, pattern recognition, and learning abilities. Young birds can quickly learn which butterflies are distasteful or poisonous, and monkeys can learn which 'fake leaf,' like the katydids pictured, are actually edible insects. Because of that learning ability, many of these camouflaged species are polymorphic- meaning they have varied forms of camouflage. Within a single species, some katydids will look more like a live leaf while others have dead-leaf venation. The variation ensures that a monkey can't learn one single pattern to eat and will have a more difficult time identifying the katydids as prey.

The pressure that predators put on populations of these animals means that only the most well camouflaged survive to reproduce, and the others get eaten! This effect, over millions of generations, has helped produce species with the detailed camouflage we see today.

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The Elusive American Pygmy Kingfisher

January 8, 2013, 1:17 pm

≫ Next: "Best" High Solar Halo Photos Ever Captured in Tambopata

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American Pygmy Kingfisher, Chloroceryle aenea aenea, at the Tambopata Research Center
Photo by Phil Torres

For anyone that enjoys birding, getting a photo of a kingfisher is always quite a challenge. They are found along hard-to-access rivers or bodies of water, are very quick and strong flyers, and they always seem to take flight just moments before getting your camera into focus.

Kingfishers are known for their excellent fishing abilities. Their beak and body can dive into water head first in pursuit of fish with such a splash-free efficiency that kingfishers actually inspired the design of modern bullet trains in Japan!

I was lucky enough to come across this American Pygmy Kingfisher, one of the rarer species in Tambopata, as it roosted just after dusk. While many kingfishers are found along larger rivers like the Tambopata, others can be found along smaller streams or, in this case, a caiman-filled swamp.

The American Pygmy Kingfisher and the Ringed Kingfisher are unique amongst other tropical kingfishers in that they also "hawk" for insects- capturing and eating insects in flight- along with the fishing.

Tambopata Research Center Phil Torres Peru Rainforest Expeditions

Image by Phil Torres

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"Best" High Solar Halo Photos Ever Captured in Tambopata

January 14, 2013, 2:08 pm

≫ Next: Two Seconds In The Amazon

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Solar halos seen in Tambopata.
Image by Phil Torres

A boat ride down the Tambopata River in Peru this September took an incredible turn when rare optical phenomena, known as high altitude solar halos, were seen and photographed with what are being considered the best images of the halos ever recorded.

What appeared to be an upside-down rainbow at first glance out the side of the canoe ended up being part of the rainbow-filled display seen here. Biologist Phil Torres and photographer Jeff Cremer were there to document it in the images and video seen here while on a photo tour at the Tambopata Research Center.

What are high altitude solar halos?

According the atmospheric optics expert Les Cowley, these solar halos are caused by a very specific reflections and refractions of the sun's light with ice crystals located in cirrus clouds high in the atmosphere. Normal rainbows are created by interactions of the sunlight with low level rain drops rather than high altitude hexagonal crystals of ice.

Cowley also mentioned that after first sharing the photos with others in the field of study, the consensus was that these images are considered "the best high sun halo images seen" and are strikingly clear compared to other images of this phenomenon, possibly because of the tropical origin opposed to a more temperate one typically associated with the halos.

Solar ice halos seen in Tambopata. The fainter white halos are considered the most rare.
Image by Phil Torres

Image by Steve Gettle

Aren't these sun dogs?

No- many consider all 'rainbows around the sun' like these to be sun dogs, they are not. Sun dogs are a specific type of ice halo found closer to the horizon with paired glowing refractions horizontal with the sun, as seen here. The halos seen in Tambopata were considerably higher in the sky than a sun dog.

While many think these ice halos are found only in colder climates, Cowley says that they are actually present throughout the world.

Want to visit Tambopata for your chance to see these halos? Come along for the adventure and click here to find more information.

A full analysis of the display can be seen on Optics Picture of the Day.

Simulation of the phenomenon with names of corresponding ice halos seen in the images.
Image created by Les Cowley with HaloSim.

Image by Jeff Cremer.

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Two Seconds In The Amazon

January 18, 2013, 3:15 pm

≫ Next: Frog Weather

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Watch this amazing video put together by Rainforest Expeditions' photo tour guide Jeff Cremer.

Featuring the wildlife you can encounter in the Tambopata rainforests.

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Frog Weather

January 20, 2013, 2:21 pm

≫ Next: Do Butterflies Sleep?

≪ Previous: Two Seconds In The Amazon

Phyllomedusa palliata hanging from a leaf near Posada Amazonas.
Image by Phil Torres

Ask any field biologist who has worked with frogs: there is such a thing as frog weather. I have been on easily over 100 night surveys in the rainforest in search of frogs and it doesn’t take long to notice a pattern emerge uniting the weather with your success in the night’s excursion.

Frog eggs with developing
tadpoles inside. Image by
Phil Torres

Frogs, especially here in the rainforest, require moisture for activity and flock temporary pools/swamps of water to reproduce and lay eggs. I was last here in Tambopata during the dry season when there were very few temporary pools, so many of the frogs were hard to spot and likely hanging out up in the canopy rather than being more visible closer the dry ground. But now, it is rainy season. Frog season.

The perfect weather scenario for frogs based upon my observations: No rain for two to three days. Then, moderate to heavy rain that day, clear weather for a couple hours as the sun sets, and no rain to light drizzle at night. I often look at the leaves to tell me how many frogs will be out- do the leaves look dry and dusty or dewy and glistening? If it’s the latter, you have a pretty good chance of spotting a frog- or dozens of frogs- that night.

If the rain is too heavy at night, there will be few frogs visible. The males come down closer to the ground at night and call to females to reproduce- what’s the point in calling for a mate if they can’t hear you through the rain? This also helps researchers- you can identify frogs and their activity based upon the amount of calling.

Phyllomedusa camba
Image by Phil Torres

So why should you go look for frogs? For one, they are quite photogenic, typically sit still, and make for great rainforest wildlife photos. Secondly, consider one of the reasons biologists go looking for them: frogs can be bioindicators. Meaning, a healthy frog population typically means a healthy environment. Many frogs breathe at least partially through their highly permeable skin, so if there are a lot of pollutants in the water the frog populations may be the first to be affected.

Also, many species of frogs are in decline due the chytrid fungus. Thus, the sad reality is that the frog extinction rate is much higher than many other animals, so you may not have long to photograph some of the more unique or rare species. Tambopata has been tested recently and no chytrid fungus was detected, so you’ll be sure to encounter some spectacular hopping frogs during your visit.
That being said, it is starting to rain here, so let’s hope for another night of frog weather. Happy frogging!

Follow Phil Torres on twitter.

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Do Butterflies Sleep?

January 22, 2013, 8:49 am

≫ Next: When It’s Macaw Breeding Season, Researchers Get To Action

≪ Previous: Frog Weather

If you walk around the forest at night with a flashlight, you’ll quickly find the answer:

Yes, kind of.

Here’s a collection of images of some ‘sleeping butterflies’ I’ve come across in Tambopata.

butterfly sleep amazon rainforest peru tambopata

'Sleeping' Butterflies

In general, there are a few common traits for this nighttime behavior. They almost always ‘sleep’ hanging upside-down and underneath a leaf. This hanging requires minimal energy, as their tarsi (aka ‘claws’) can grasp on to the leaf with little effort, opposed to standing right side up.

Why under a leaf?

Two main reasons. For one, they gain protection from rain that often falls at night. Secondly, they are more hidden from early-rising birds looking for a meal that may be active before the butterflies are warm enough to take off.

I have often noted that butterflies with warning coloration (black and bright yellow, orange wings) sleep more exposed, for example under a thin twig rather than under a covering leaf. This coloration is there as a signal to warn birds that they may be poisonous to eat. So, it may work to the butterflies’ advantage to show their entire color signal (aka wings) to birds, rather than keep their wings partially hidden under a leaf, explaining why they may tend to sleep more in the open.

So, are they actually asleep?

Depends on your definition of sleep. If you want to define sleep as an inactive, low metabolic state: yes. This low metabolic state is often driven by the temperature in the air itself; ectothermic butterflies require outside heat-energy to become active.

There’s really no use in being active at night for most butterflies- they can’t see each other to mate, and empty flowers are restocking themselves with nectar for the following day. So, it makes sense that they would go into this ‘sleep’ state which likely helps them digest the day’s feed, produce eggs/sperm, and basically take advantage of a time in which there is nothing better to do.

During this nocturnal state they are still capable of flying off if disturbed. Also, there are some butterflies that specialize in roosting together at night in groups, and others I’ve seen regularly in pairs. Some butterflies in temperate climates are capable of overwintering as an adult, which is basically a physiologically extreme version of this normal sleep, kind of similar to hibernation.

Now the obvious follow-up question:

Do butterflies dream?

I think not.

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When It’s Macaw Breeding Season, Researchers Get To Action

February 1, 2013, 3:05 pm

≫ Next: Stephanidae- An encounter with a rare parasitoid wasp

≪ Previous: Do Butterflies Sleep?

A seven-week-old scarlet macaw nestling getting weighed. Doesn't it look like it's smiling?
Image by Phil Torres

Researchers take measurements on a 1-week-old macaw chick.
Image by Phil Torres

The Tambopata Research Center has hosted world-renowned macaw research for 20 years now, with researchers analyzing macaw activity, monitoring the fruiting trees they feed on, and overall keeping an eye on the macaw population.

But this time of year is a special time of year for the researchers. As rainy season comes into effect, the macaws start laying eggs and the researchers begin closely monitoring the nests and measuring the chicks as they develop.

Researcher Jordan Harrison climbs
up to a macaw nest. Image by Phil Torres.

If their research wasn’t cool enough already, they use technical tree climbing techniques to go up 30m-40m into the trees to gain access to the nests. Pretty awesome science if you ask me.

Into the Field

I had the pleasure of joining them and observing one of their morning climbs and chick measurements. In fact, any visitor to the lodges, including tourists, can tag along with the researchers in this activity.

It involves a team of at least three researchers, one doing the climbing, chick removing, and nest check while the others take the chick (which has been lowered in a bucket) and record size, weight, and other observational data.

The chick I was lucky enough to see was a one-week-old red and green macaw. One of the strangest looking creatures I’ve ever seen, it’s hard to imagine it will turn into one of the most beautiful birds in the rainforest.

The chick was plump and healthy by all accounts, and after the measurements were done the chick was raised back up, put back in its nest to await its parents return with a crop-full of food.

A one-week old red-and-green macaw chick getting weighed by researchers.
Image by Phil Torres

Why Do the Research?
Macaw populations are at risk for a variety of reasons. Habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade have taken a tole on wild populations. Some species also require a specific type of tree to nest in, and at times those trees come under high demand from loggers.

By studying these populations, their breeding, and their genetics, researchers can arm themselves with the knowledge necessary to keep populations from going extinct. The information gathered here in non-threatenedTambopata- for example, successful artificial nest designs- can be used in areas where macaws are endangered, like Costa Rica and Mexico.

Led by Dr. Donald Brightsmith, this project has published many breakthrough studies, including figuring out why macaws eat clay (for the salt!), what influences nestling survival (macaw fights!), and why they lay four eggs but only raise one or two young.

Red and green macaws gather on a claylick along the Tambopata. Hard to believe the above chick will turn into something so stunning. Image by Jeff Cremer.

Follow Phil Torres on twitter.

To volunteer as a researcher for this project, visit http://macawproject.org/

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Stephanidae- An encounter with a rare parasitoid wasp

February 4, 2013, 3:24 pm

≫ Next: Welcome to Tapir Eden

≪ Previous: When It’s Macaw Breeding Season, Researchers Get To Action

This odd-looking creature is commonly known as the ‘crown wasp’ due to a ring of tubercles on its head but is known by scientists as a stephanid.

Stephanus is greek for crown, thus, Stephanidae.

Its strange body structure can be hard to make sense of, so let me try and explain: The orange/brown part to the left is the head, to the right of that the thorax with the wings attached, and the part sticking up into the air is the abdomen, making up the three major segments of an insect.

But what is that long needle-like structure on the right?

That is the ovipositor, the technical term for an insect’s egg-laying device.
The wasp uses this ovipositor to stab beetle larvae and lay eggs in them, which it does by using its legs to sense vibrations from beetle larvae living inside the rotten wood it has landed upon. After a few days, the deposited egg hatches and a wasp larva develops inside the beetle larva, eventually killing it and emerging as an adult, which then flies off to stab a beetle larva elsewhere in the rainforest and start the process all over again...

Some parasitoid wasps actually use a form of echolocation (just like a bat would) to locate their prey. They have modified antennae that tap the rotten wood and specialized ears on their legs that can hear the tap’s echo off of a larva and locate it that way.

This particular rotting tree had several of these wasps on it, so clearly there were some stab-worthy beetle larvae within.

Note: this wasp is a parasitoid because it kills the beetle larva host, opposed to a parasite which just feeds on it but lets it live.

Read more about these wasps here.

Follow biologist Phil Torres on twitter.

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Welcome to Tapir Eden

February 11, 2013, 1:16 pm

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≪ Previous: Stephanidae- An encounter with a rare parasitoid wasp

A group of scientists recently came together with park rangers and native communities to solve a difficult question:

How many tapirs are there in the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape of northwest Bolivia and southeastern Tambopata Peru?

Tapir crossing the Tambopata River. Image by Jeff Cremer.

Tapirs are the largest mammal in the Amazon, but their large size doesn’t mean they’re easy to find. In fact, they are notoriously really difficult to see, and most researchers and guides I know who work in the Amazon have only seen a handful due. These odd-looking creatures look similar to a horse but are actually more closely related to the rhinoceros.

My only sighting wasn’t by my eyes, but by my camera trap I set up, a video of which can be seen here. Researchers for this study used this same camera-trap technique, in which you put motion and infra-red detecting cameras in areas of high mammal activity in order to monitor and detect populations.

While many mammal studies rely entirely on camera trap images, these researchers also included the one thing that could give them insight to how the tapir populations have changed over time: humans.

They interviewed park rangers and native hunters to further gain insight into tapir behavior, tapir hang outs, and tapir numbers. The combined data suggested that tapir populations are increasing throughout most of this range due to ecotourism projects and government efforts which help protect the forest and minimize hunting.

The analysis suggested that there are between 15,000 and 35,000 tapirs in this range- possibly more tapirs than there are humans! To read the full study, check it out here.

Note the ticks on the tapir's head and the odd snout.
Image by Jeff Cremer.

Follow Phil Torres on Twitter.

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Macaw Chick Update

February 18, 2013, 9:48 am

≫ Next: What wildlife can you see along the Tambopata?

≪ Previous: Welcome to Tapir Eden

Remember this adorable macaw from last month?

We checked in with the researchers at the Tambopata Research Center to see how he's doing. An update from Jordan Harrison, one of the volunteer macaw researchers, and it looks great:

"The Hormiguero chick is doing quite well. Healthy as he can be. His body condition score was almost perfect when we checked on the 16th for his 60 day check up. He weighs about 850 grams, feathers are developing nicely. Not even any parasites. He is a super chill chick. We took our usual measurements and he sat calmly in my lap the entire time."

Here he is, almost all grown up at this point:

Photo by Jordan Harrison

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What wildlife can you see along the Tambopata?

February 23, 2013, 5:21 pm

≫ Next: Where Did The Roadside Hawk Live Before There Were Roads?

≪ Previous: Macaw Chick Update

The Andes Mountains can be seen from the Tambopata

Riding in canoes is an experience that is not just for the sake of transportation. It also provides an incredible opportunity to see and photograph wildlife.

Here's a list of some of the more notable animals we've seen in the last few months:

-Jaguar

-Giant Anteater

-Red Howler Monkey

-Puma

-Caiman

-Harpy Eagle

-Black-and-White Hawk Eagle

-Tapir

-Red Brocket Deer

-Capibara

-Macaws

Why can we see so much wildlife while on a boat? A few reasons. Many animals, like jaguars, rest by the river, providing an excellent opportunity to photograph them. Also, virtually all mammals in the rainforest can swim and tend to cross the river on occasion, so you can even find a sloth slowly making its way across!

What's that log in the water?

It's a giant anteater swimming!
Image by John Hannaford.

Also, many animals aren't sure how to interpret seeing a boat- while a jaguar may hide from you when you're on foot, they typically don't interpret you as a threat when you're in a boat. This works great for us, because it allows plenty of time to get the perfect photo!

Jaguar seen along the river from a boat.

Image by Liz Paipay.

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Where Did The Roadside Hawk Live Before There Were Roads?

February 28, 2013, 6:29 pm

≫ Next: Top 5 Strangest Rainforest Animals

≪ Previous: What wildlife can you see along the Tambopata?

The Roadside Hawk. Image by Liz Paipay.

Walk or drive along virtually any road in the Amazon and you’ll hear that unique screech of a roadside hawk and look up to see one perched in a tree. On a particular two mile road I used to walk daily I would typically see three to four of these birds of prey acting true to their name- along the side of the road.

But wait- there haven’t always been roads in the Amazon, they were created by humans! I wondered where they are found naturally, in regions without large clearings like roads as the forest used to be. The answer? Typically either along a river, or in the forest, but in fewer numbers.

Being a visual predator, there is a definite advantage to being in an area like a road- prey are probably easier to see than in the dense rainforest. For some reason, roadside hawks in particular have adapted to this roadside lifestyle more so than other birds of prey, and it seems to have made them more prevalent than ever.

One study compared the roadside hawk nesting activity in an area of untouched rainforest with an area with slash-and-burn farming landscape. The slash-and-burn area likely had roads in it, and at the very least represents a more open landscape for the purposes of our comparison.

What did they find? In the open farming landscape, there were more nests, more young raised per pair, and a higher portion of breeding vs non-breeding pairs. They’re bringing home the same amount of food for their young, but the open area appears to allow more nesting and predation opportunities in general and is thus able to support a larger population.

This is an example of when a human interference and habitat disturbance can appear to ‘help’ a population. But more numbers doesn’t necessarily mean we are helping these birds. Many animals end up falling ill to disease when they are in an unnatural higher density due to human activity (like high density coyotes in neighborhoods suffering from mange in the United States), and the prey that the birds are feeding on may suffer from an unnaturally high mortality rate.

While it doesn’t appear to be affecting the birds negatively at this point, it is a strong lesson that as we modify the rainforest, we modify the animals within, as well.

Follow Phil Torres on Twitter.

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Top 5 Strangest Rainforest Animals

March 2, 2013, 7:27 am

≫ Next: A Turtle Drowning In Butterfly Kisses

≪ Previous: Where Did The Roadside Hawk Live Before There Were Roads?

From a decoy building spider that would put Charlotte to shame to the caterpillar that has the same barber as Donald Trump, these are only a few of the interesting things that you can see in Tambopata.

1. Decoy-building Spider - Check out the full article with video here

This decoy building spider shows 3D printers what’s up: It's a small spider that constructs a bigger, scarier spider in its web completely out of debris and dead insect parts. These images show the spider 'decoy' that the small spider, seen at the top of the decoy, created. Why does it do it? Researchers are still trying to figure it out, but it likely has to do with confusing predators and increasing its chances of survival. This spider was recently discovered and is the only animal ever recorded to construct a larger version itself. Where's the one place in the world to see this spider? A three-minute walk from the Tambopata Research Center.

2. Triple Rainbow - Full article with video here

A double rainbow once made a grown man cry, but this triple rainbow was so cool it would make Chuck Norris cry: Imagine looking off in the distance and seeing an upside-down rainbow above the trees. A recent sighting of this rare optical event in the sky resulted in the best photos ever taken of this unbelievable, rainbow-filled display as seen here. These solar halos result from interactions of the sunlight with ice crystals high up in the atmosphere, and according to experts Tambopata just happens to offer the right conditions to make this the most impressive sighting of these halos ever recorded. This was seen along the Tambopata River on a photo tour.

3. Donald Trump's Wig

This animal is one of the most bizarre things you can come across in nature- Is it a fruit? A bird? A mammal? No- it's a caterpillar of a megalopygid moth. But don't be fooled by the nice, yellow fuzzy appearance, the hairs on this are full of urticating spines that can inject a very painful poison if touched. This caterpillar was spotted at the Posada Amazonas Lodge.

4. Basket Cocoon.

Humans have such lame growth into adulthood: The incredible woven lattice structure of the urodid moth's cocoon is an astounding example of art in nature. The cocoon dangles from a silken string about a foot long, likely to prevent ants from feeding on it, and the bright orange color can serve as a warning to potential predators that this cocoon may be poisonous to eat. The adult moth eventually emerges from the pupa, resting inside, and exits through the small tubular 'escape hatch' at the bottom of the structure. This pupa was seen at Refugio Amazonas Lodge.

5. Macaw Clay Lick

A five minute boat ride from the Tambopata Research Center takes you to an island that overlooks one of the most incredible and colorful animal gatherings in the world. A wall of clay, over 200 feet across, where hundreds of individuals making up nine species of bright parrots, parakeets, and macaws gather every morning to feed on the sodium-rich clay. This was also featured in a video by Destin of Smarter Every Daywhere he and Rainforest Expeditons photographer Jeff Cremer filmed the macaws with a high speed camera.

Extra: 16,000 Megapixel Image of Machu Picchu

If a picture is worth a thousand words how many words is a 16000-megapixel picture of Machu Picchu worth? This may appear to be a normal image of the Incan ruins of Machu Picchu. But try zooming in and you'll realize that this image is a whopping 16 gigapixels (16,000 megapixels), and the highest resolution image ever taken of the ruins. Using gigapan technology, Rainforest Expeditions photographer Jeff Cremer has brought access to this World Heritage Site to the masses like never before. If you're in Peru and on your way to Tambopata, be sure to stop by Cusco to see it in-person.

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A Turtle Drowning In Butterfly Kisses

March 6, 2013, 3:30 pm

≫ Next: Steve Gettle Tambopata Photography Trip Report

≪ Previous: Top 5 Strangest Rainforest Animals

This is a colorful example of how odd behaviors can evolve in the face of a limiting resource. In the Amazon, salt is a much sought-after commodity as it is generally lacking in the environment.

Turtle tears? A prime source of salt, and many butterfly species have adapted by perching on their face and sipping from the source. Although this is generally a common sight along the river, this image taken by our photo tour guide Jeff Cremer is the most adorably smothered I have seen, yet.

Follow Phil Torres on twitter.

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Steve Gettle Tambopata Photography Trip Report

March 9, 2013, 5:36 pm

≫ Next: How to use a telephoto lens to film macaws.

≪ Previous: A Turtle Drowning In Butterfly Kisses

I (Steve Gettle) just returned from a great trip to Peru where I visited the Tambopata National Reserve, a reserve the size of Belgum with 600 species of birds, 1300 different butterflies and 300 species of mammals. Not only was this trip productive photographically but it was also an epic adventure. After the flight into Lima it was just a short flight to Puerto Muldonado where I boarded a bus for the ride to the Tambopata River, where the real journey begins.

Once on the river I traveled by motorized canoe deep into the amazon jungle. The destination is a series of three lodges which are located along the river, these lodges served as my base while I explored the area. The last lodge deep in the jungle is actually a research center and arguably the most remote lodge in all of South America!

The main attraction here are the macaws. The Tambopta contains 10% of the world’s macaw population. And the world’s largest clay lick. Macaws gather at clay licks to ingest the clay where they get minerals that are not available in their jungle diet. While I was there I was able to not only photograph them at the clay lick but also to photograph them as they flew back and forth. Since they usually fly together as mated pairs, this is exponentially harder than shooting a single bird in flight. Now not only do I have the shadows from the other bird to deal with, but I also have two sets of wing positions to worry about getting right.

In addition to the macaws there were tons of other birds as well as lots of amazing insects and amphibians that I shot on our nightly jungle walks. You can see a gallery showcasing some more of my favorite images from the trip here.

I will be leading a photo tour to the Peruvian Amazon in the fall of 2013. In addition to duplicating this amazing adventure there will be an optional 4 day extension to Machu Picchu as well. More information will be coming in an upcoming newsletter.

A special note of thanks to Jeff Cremer of Rainforest Expeditions who served as my host and guide on this trip. we had a great time and an epic adventure.

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